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Table 4 Possible non-specific treatments for the management of COVID-19

From: Functional food: complementary to fight against COVID-19

Non-specific treatments for the management of COVID-19

Name

Target

Mode of Action

Mode of Administration

Potential Side Effects

References

Drugs

Remdesivir

RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase

Nucleotide analog

Intravenous

May damage liver

[77, 78]

Nausea

Severe Headache

Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine

ACE2

Heme polymerase inhibitor

Oral

Abdominal pain

[79,80,81]

Diarrhea

Shortness of breath

Lopinavir and Ritonavir

3CL protease

Protease inhibitor

Oral

Diarrhea

[82,83,84]

Anemia

High blood pressure

Favipiravir

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase inhibitor

Oral

Raised liver enzymes

[85,86,87]

Hyperuricemia

QT prolongation

Baricitinib

Janus kinase

JAK inhibitor

Oral

Sinus infections

[88, 89]

Shingles

Urinary Tract Infection

Nirmatrelvir

3C like protease

Covalent inhibitor of cysteine residue

Oral

Changes in taste, diarrhea, high blood pressure, or muscle pain

[167]

Molnupiravir

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase inhibitor

Oral

Diarrhea, dizziness, and nausea

[168]

Name

Developer

Type

Dose

Efficiency Rate

Potential Side Effects

References

Vaccines

mRNA-1273

Moderna

mRNA

2

95%

Pain (91.6%)

[90, 91]

Fatigue (68.5%)

Headache (63.0%)

Muscle pain (59.6%)

Joint pain (44.8%)

BNT162b2

Pfizer & BioNTech

mRNA

2

95%

Fever

[90, 92]

Chills

Tiredness

Headache

AZD1222

University of Oxford & AstraZeneca

DNA (chimpanzee adenovirus vector)

2

62–90%

Myalgia

[90, 93]

Nausea

Tenderness

Fever

Sputnik V

Gamaleya Research Institute

DNA (human adenovirus vector)

2

92%

Flu-like symptoms

[90, 94]

Pain at the injection site

Fatigue

Name

Target

Mode of Action

Mode of Administration

Potential Side Effects

References

Immunotherapies

Convalescent plasma therapy

Plasma from recovered SARS-CoV-2 patient

Producing SARS-CoV-2–specific IgG antibodies

Transplantation

May aggravate lung injury in patients with multiple organ failure

[95,96,97]

May experience severe adverse reactions to blood transfusion

Plasmapheresis

Blood component separator

Discarding pathogenic substances from patient’s plasma

Transplantation

Hypotension

[95, 98, 99]

Risk of transfusion reactions

Suppression of the immune system

Mesenchymal stem cell therapy

Inhibit excessive immune responses

Preventing uncontrolled mass production of cytokines or inflammatory factors

Transplantation

Tumorigenesis

[95, 100, 101]

Genetic instability and chromosomal