Most cited ethnomedicinal plant species | Antiviral mechanisms (in vitro, in vivo, and in silico) |
---|---|
Allium sativum L. | Blocks viral entry into host cells, inhibits viral RNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase, DNA synthesis and immediate-early gene 1(IEG1) transcription, downregulates the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway [88] |
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees | Fusion and adsorption of virus to the host cell, binding to viral receptor and coreceptor, enzymes involved in the DNA/RNA/Genome replication by the virus, translation, post-translation and reverse transcription [58],enhances cytotoxic T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, phagocytosis, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) [51] |
Artemisia herba-alba Asso | Phytochemicals (4,5-di-O-Caffeoylquinic acid, rutin, and schaftoside) of the plant has binding affinity to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro protein complex [55] |
Artemisia vulgaris L. | Induction of cellular ROS, blunting the PI3K/Akt/p70S6K signaling pathway, binding to NF-kB/Sp1 or inducing an endocytosis inhibition mechanism, inhibition of TGF-β signaling [67] |
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. | Blocks virus entry, inhibits viral binding to the cell [106], interacts with SARS-CoV-2 membrane (M) and envelope (E) protein [28] |
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze | Inhibits viral RNA replication, erythrocyte agglutination; blocks viral entry into hose cells; downregulates RNA synthesis; interferes core promoter transcription, virus absorption; prevents cell to cell transmission; disrupts viral membrane integrity; and reduces Nf-kB expression [119] |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck | Hepatitis A virus titer was reduced by 2.84 log TCID50/ml after treatment with citrus lemon EO at 0.5% [20] |
Curcuma longa L. | Inhibits SARS-CoV 3CL protease, hemagglutinin, viral RNA replication, viral assembly, virus binding to host cell; disrupts viral membrane proteins [104] |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | Inhibits viral replication [30] |
Euphorbia hirta L. | The extracts of the plant inhibit viral replication with IC50 values of 9 μg/ml (T1) and 5 μg/ml (T3) evaluated against HIV-1 [52] |
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. | Blocks the SARS-CoV-2 replication (at a concentration of 0.5Â mg/mL)) by inhibiting the viral main protease Mpro [113] |
Mangifera indica L. | |
Nigella sativa L. | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 protease and ACE2 receptors, affinity with SARS-CoV-2 enzymes and proteins [129] |
Psidium guajava L. | Inhibits early stage of viral infections and viral hemagglutination [102] |
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry | Inhibits the viral DNA polymerase [38], immunomodulator [41] |
Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Blocks viral attachment and internalization [34],inhibits viral replication [1] |