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Table 3 Antiviral mechanisms of the most cited ethnomedicinal plants used for SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19 and associated symptoms reported from diverse geographical locations

From: Role of ethno-phytomedicine knowledge in healthcare of COVID-19: advances in traditional phytomedicine perspective

Most cited ethnomedicinal plant species

Antiviral mechanisms (in vitro, in vivo, and in silico)

Allium sativum L.

Blocks viral entry into host cells, inhibits viral RNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase, DNA synthesis and immediate-early gene 1(IEG1) transcription, downregulates the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway [88]

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees

Fusion and adsorption of virus to the host cell, binding to viral receptor and coreceptor, enzymes involved in the DNA/RNA/Genome replication by the virus, translation, post-translation and reverse transcription [58],enhances cytotoxic T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, phagocytosis, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) [51]

Artemisia herba-alba Asso

Phytochemicals (4,5-di-O-Caffeoylquinic acid, rutin, and schaftoside) of the plant has binding affinity to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro protein complex [55]

Artemisia vulgaris L.

Induction of cellular ROS, blunting the PI3K/Akt/p70S6K signaling pathway, binding to NF-kB/Sp1 or inducing an endocytosis inhibition mechanism, inhibition of TGF-β signaling [67]

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Blocks virus entry, inhibits viral binding to the cell [106], interacts with SARS-CoV-2 membrane (M) and envelope (E) protein [28]

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Inhibits viral RNA replication, erythrocyte agglutination; blocks viral entry into hose cells; downregulates RNA synthesis; interferes core promoter transcription, virus absorption; prevents cell to cell transmission; disrupts viral membrane integrity; and reduces Nf-kB expression [119]

Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck

Hepatitis A virus titer was reduced by 2.84 log TCID50/ml after treatment with citrus lemon EO at 0.5% [20]

Curcuma longa L.

Inhibits SARS-CoV 3CL protease, hemagglutinin, viral RNA replication, viral assembly, virus binding to host cell; disrupts viral membrane proteins [104]

Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

Inhibits viral replication [30]

Euphorbia hirta L.

The extracts of the plant inhibit viral replication with IC50 values of 9 μg/ml (T1) and 5 μg/ml (T3) evaluated against HIV-1 [52]

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Blocks the SARS-CoV-2 replication (at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL)) by inhibiting the viral main protease Mpro [113]

Mangifera indica L.

Inhibits viral replication and viral protease [12, 117]

Nigella sativa L.

Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 protease and ACE2 receptors, affinity with SARS-CoV-2 enzymes and proteins [129]

Psidium guajava L.

Inhibits early stage of viral infections and viral hemagglutination [102]

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

Inhibits the viral DNA polymerase [38], immunomodulator [41]

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Blocks viral attachment and internalization [34],inhibits viral replication [1]